Nancy K. Mello 
Jack H. Mendelsona
The abuse of cocaine and other psychostimulant drugs reflects a complex interaction between the pharmacologic properties of each drug, the personality and expectations of the user, and the environmental context in which the drug is used. Polydrug abuse involving the concurrent use of several drugs with different pharmacologic effects is increasingly common. Some forms of polydrug abuse, such as the combined use of heroin and cocaine intravenously, are especially dangerous and are a major problem in hospital emergency rooms. Sometimes one drug is used to enhance the effects of another, as with the combined use of benzodiazepines and methadone, or cocaine and heroin in methadone-maintained patients.
Chronic cocaine and psychostimulant abuse may cause a number of adverse health consequences, and preexisting disorders such as hypertension and cardiac disease may be exacerbated by drug abuse. The combined use of two or more drugs may accentuate medical complications associated with abuse of one of them. Chronic drug abuse is often associated with immune system dysfunction and increased vulnerability to infections, which in turn contributes to the risk for HIV infection. In addition, concurrent use of cocaine and opiates (the “speedball”) is frequently associated with needle sharing by IV drug users. Intravenous drug abusers continue to represent the largest single group of persons with HIV infection in several major metropolitan areas in the United States as well as in many parts of Europe and Asia.
COCAINE
Cocaine is a stimulant and a local anesthetic with potent vasoconstrictor properties. The leaves of the coca plant (Erythroxylon coca) contain ~0.5–1% cocaine. The drug produces physiologic and behavioral effects when administered orally, intranasally, intravenously, or via inhalation following pyrolysis (smoking). The reinforcing effects of cocaine appear to be related to activation of dopaminergic neurons in the mesolimbic system. Cocaine increases synaptic concentrations of the monamine neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin by binding to transporter proteins in presynaptic neurons and blocking reuptake.
Prevalence of cocaine use
Cocaine is widely available throughout the United States, and cocaine abuse occurs in virtually all social and economic strata of society. The prevalence of cocaine abuse in the general population has been accompanied by an increase in cocaine abuse by heroin-dependent persons, including those in methadone maintenance programs. Intravenous cocaine is often used concurrently with IV heroin. This combination purportedly attenuates the postcocaine “crash” and substitutes a cocaine “high” for the heroin “high” blocked by methadone.
Acute and chronic intoxication
There has been an increase in both IV administration and inhalation of pyrolyzed cocaine via smoking. Following intranasal administration, changes in mood and sensation are perceived within 3–5 min, and peak effects occur at 10–20 min. The effects rarely last more than 1 h. Inhalation of pyrolyzed materials includes inhaling crack/cocaine or smoking coca paste, a product made by extracting cocaine preparations with flammable solvents, and cocaine free-base smoking. Free-base cocaine, including the freebase prepared with sodium bicarbonate (crack), has become increasingly popular because of the relative high potency of the compound and its rapid onset of action (8–10 s following smoking).
Cocaine produces a brief, dose-related stimulation and enhancement of mood and an increase in cardiac rate and blood pressure. Body temperature usually increases following cocaine administration, and high doses of cocaine may induce lethal pyrexia or hypertension. Because cocaine inhibits reuptake of catecholamines at adrenergic nerve endings, the drug potentiates sympathetic nervous system activity. Cocaine has a short plasma half-life of approximately 45–60 min. It is metabolized by plasma esterases, and cocaine metabolites are excreted in urine. The very short duration of the euphorigenic effects of cocaine observed in chronic abusers is probably due to both acute and chronic tolerance. Frequent self-administration of the drug (two to three times per hour) is often reported by chronic cocaine abusers. Alcohol is often used to modulate both the cocaine high and the dysphoria associated with the abrupt disappearance of cocaine’s effects. A metabolite of cocaine, cocaethylene, has been detected in the blood and urine of persons who concurrently abuse alcohol and cocaine. Cocaethylene induces changes in cardiovascular function similar to those of cocaine alone, and the pathophysiologic consequences of alcohol abuse plus cocaine abuse may be additive when both are used together.
The prevalent assumption that cocaine inhalation or IV administration is relatively safe is contradicted by reports of death from respiratory depression, cardiac arrhythmias, and convulsions associated with cocaine use. In addition to generalized seizures, neurologic complications may include headache, ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke, or subarachnoid hemorrhage. Disorders of cerebral blood flow and perfusion in cocaine-dependent persons have been detected with magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) studies. Severe pulmonary disease may develop in individuals who inhale crack cocaine; this effect is attributed both to the direct effects of cocaine and to residual contaminants in the smoked material. Hepatic necrosis may occur following chronic crack/cocaine use. Protracted cocaine abuse may also cause paranoid ideation and visual and auditory hallucinations, a state that resembles alcoholic hallucinosis.
Although men and women who abuse cocaine may report that the drug enhances libidinal drive, chronic cocaine use causes significant loss of libido and adversely affects sexual function. Impotence and gynecomastia have been observed in male cocaine abusers, and these abnormalities often persist for long periods following cessation of drug use. Women who abuse cocaine may have major derangements in menstrual cycle function, including galactorrhea, amenorrhea, and infertility. Chronic cocaine abuse may cause persistent hyperprolactinemia as a consequence of disordered dopaminergic inhibition of prolactin secretion by the anterior pituitary. Cocaine abuse by pregnant women, particularly crack smoking, has been associated with both an increased risk of congenital malformations in the fetus and perinatal cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease in the mother. However, cocaine abuse per se is probably not the sole cause of these perinatal disorders, because maternal cocaine abuse is often associated with poor nutrition and prenatal health care as well as poly-drug abuse that may contribute to the risk for perinatal disease.
Psychological dependence on cocaine, indicated by inability to abstain from frequent compulsive use, has also been reported. Although the occurrence of withdrawal syndromes involving psychomotor agitation and autonomic hyperactivity remains controversial, severe depression (“crashing”) following cocaine intoxication may accompany drug withdrawal.
TREATMENT Cocaine Overdose and Chronic Abuse
Treatment of cocaine overdose is a medical emergency that is best managed in an intensive care unit. Cocaine toxicity produces a hyperadrenergic state characterized by hypertension, tachycardia, tonic-clonic seizures, dyspnea, and ventricular arrhythmias. Intravenous diazepam in doses up to 0.5 mg/kg administered over an 8-h period has been shown to be effective for control of seizures. Ventricular arrhythmias have been managed successfully by administration of 0.5–1 mg of propranolol IV. Since many instances of cocaine-related mortality have been associated with concurrent use of other illicit drugs (particularly heroin), the physician must be prepared to institute effective emergency treatment for multiple drug toxicities.
Treatment of chronic cocaine abuse requires the combined efforts of primary care physicians, psychiatrists, and psychosocial care providers. Early abstinence from cocaine use is often complicated by symptoms of depression and guilt, insomnia, and anorexia, which may be as severe as those observed in major affective disorders. Individual and group psychotherapy, family therapy, and peer group assistance programs are often useful for inducing prolonged remission from drug use. A number of medications used for the treatment of various medical and psychiatric disorders have been administered to reduce the duration and severity of cocaine abuse and dependence. The search for a medication that is both safe and highly effective for cocaine detoxification or maintenance of abstinence is continuing. Although psychotherapy may be effective, no specific form of psychotherapy or behavioral modification is uniquely beneficial.
MARIJUANA AND CANNABIS COMPOUNDS
Cannabis sativa contains >400 compounds in addition to the psychoactive substance, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Marijuana cigarettes are prepared from the leaves and flowering tops of the plant, and a typical marijuana cigarette contains 0.5–1 g of plant material. The usual THC concentration varies between 10 and 40 mg, but concentrations >100 mg per cigarette have been detected. Hashish is prepared from concentrated resin of C. sativa and contains a THC concentration of between 8 and 12% by weight. “Hash oil,” a lipid-soluble plant extract, may contain THC between 25 and 60% and may be added to marijuana or hashish to enhance its THC concentration. Smoking is the most common mode of marijuana or hashish use. During pyrolysis, >150 compounds in addition to THC are released in the smoke. Although most of these compounds do not have psychoactive properties, they may have physiologic effects.
THC is quickly absorbed from the lungs into blood, and then rapidly sequestered in tissues. THC is metabolized primarily in the liver, where it is converted to 11-hydroxy-THC, a psychoactive compound, and >20 other metabolites. Many THC metabolites are excreted through the feces at a relatively slow rate of clearance in comparison to most other psychoactive drugs.
Specific cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2) have been identified in the central and peripheral nervous system. High densities of cannabinoid receptors have been found in the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and hippocampus. T and B lymphocytes also contain cannabinoid receptors, and these appear to mediate the anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory properties of cannabinoids. A naturally occurring THC-like ligand has been identified and is widely distributed in the nervous system.
Prevalence of use
Marijuana is the most commonly used illegal drug in the United States, and its use is particularly prevalent among adolescents. Marijuana is relatively inexpensive and is often considered to be less hazardous than other controlled drugs and substances. Very potent forms of marijuana (sinsemilla) are now available in many locations, and concurrent use of marijuana with crack/cocaine and phencyclidine is not uncommon.
Acute and chronic intoxication
Acute intoxication from marijuana and cannabis compounds is related to both the dose of THC and the route of administration. THC is absorbed more rapidly from marijuana smoking than from orally ingested cannabis compounds. Acute marijuana intoxication may produce a perception of relaxation and mild euphoria resembling mild to moderate alcohol intoxication. This condition is usually accompanied by some impairment in thinking, concentration, and perceptual and psycho-motor function. Higher doses of cannabis may produce more pronounced impairment in concentration and perception, as well as greater sedation. Although the acute effects of marijuana intoxication are relatively benign in normal users, the drug can precipitate severe emotional disorders in individuals who have antecedent psychotic or neurotic problems. Like other psychoactive compounds, both the user’s expectations and the environmental context are important determinants of the type and severity of the effects of marijuana intoxication.
As with abuse of cocaine, opioids, and alcohol, chronic marijuana abusers may lose interest in common socially desirable goals and steadily devote more time to drug acquisition and use. However, THC does not cause a specific and unique “amotivational syndrome.” The range of symptoms sometimes attributed to marijuana use is difficult to distinguish from mild to moderate depression and the maturational dysfunctions often associated with protracted adolescence. Chronic marijuana use has also been reported to increase the risk of psychotic symptoms in individuals with a past history of schizophrenia. Persons who initiate marijuana smoking before the age of 17 may exhibit more pronounced cognitive deficits and they may also be at higher risk for polydrug and alcohol abuse problems in later life, but the role of marijuana in this causal sequence is uncertain.
Physical effects
Conjunctival injection and tachycardia are the most frequent immediate physical concomitants of smoking marijuana. Tolerance for marijuana-induced tachycardia develops rapidly among regular users. However, marijuana smoking may precipitate angina in persons with a history of coronary insufficiency. Exercise-induced angina may be increased after marijuana use to a greater extent than after tobacco cigarette smoking. Patients with cardiac disease should be strongly advised not to smoke marijuana or use cannabis compounds.
Significant decrements in pulmonary vital capacity have been found in regular daily marijuana smokers. Because marijuana smoking typically involves deep inhalation and prolonged retention of marijuana smoke, marijuana smokers may develop chronic bronchial irritation. Impairment of single-breath carbon monoxide diffusion capacity (DLCO) is greater in persons who smoke both marijuana and tobacco than in tobacco smokers.
Although marijuana has also been associated with a number of other adverse effects, many of these studies await replication and confirmation. A reported correlation between chronic marijuana use and decreased testosterone levels in males has not been confirmed. Decreased sperm count and sperm motility and morphologic abnormalities of spermatozoa following marijuana use have been reported. Prospective studies demonstrated a correlation between impaired fetal growth and development and heavy marijuana use during pregnancy. Marijuana has also been implicated in derangements of the immune system; in chromosomal abnormalities; and in inhibition of DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis; however, these findings have not been confirmed or related to any specific physiologic effect in humans.
Tolerance and physical dependence
Habitual marijuana users rapidly develop tolerance to the psychoactive effects of marijuana, then smoke more frequently and try to acquire more potent cannabis compounds. Tolerance for the physiologic effects of marijuana develops at different rates; e.g., tolerance develops rapidly for marijuana-induced tachycardia but more slowly for marijuana-induced conjunctival injection. Tolerance for both behavioral and physiologic effects of marijuana decreases rapidly upon cessation of marijuana use.
Withdrawal signs and symptoms have been reported in chronic cannabis users, and the severity of symptoms is related to dosage and duration of use. These symptoms typically reach their peak several days after cessation of chronic use and include irritability, anorexia, and sleep disturbances. Withdrawal signs and symptoms observed in chronic marijuana users are usually relatively mild in comparison to those observed in heavy opiate or alcohol users and rarely require medical or pharmacologic intervention. However, more severe and protracted abstinence syndromes may occur after sustained use of high-potency cannabis compounds.
Therapeutic use of marijuana
Marijuana, administered as cigarettes or as a synthetic oral cannabinoid (dronabinol), has been proposed to have a number of medicinal properties that may be clinically useful in some situations. These include antiemetic effects in chemotherapy recipients, appetite-promoting effects in AIDS patients, reduction of intraocular pressure in glaucoma, and reduction of spasticity in multiple sclerosis and other neurologic disorders. With the possible exception of AIDS-related cachexia, none of these attributes of marijuana compounds is clearly superior to other readily available therapies.
METHAMPHETAMINE
Methamphetamine is also referred to as “meth,” “speed,” “crank,” “chalk,” “ice,” “glass,” or “crystal.” Methamphetamine is a mixed-action monoamine releaser with activity at dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine systems. Despite drug seizures, closures of clandestine laboratories that produce methamphetamine illegally, and an increase in methamphetamine abuse prevention programs, methamphetamine was considered second only to cocaine as a drug threat to society by the U.S. Department of Justice in 2009. Hospital admissions for methamphetamine treatment more than doubled between 1998 and 2007, and young adults (aged 18–25 years) have the highest use rates.
Methamphetamine can be used by smoking, snorting, IV injection, or oral administration. Methamphetamine abusers report that drug use induces feelings of euphoria and decreased fatigue. Adverse consequences of methamphetamine abuse include headache, difficulty concentrating, diminished appetite, abdominal pain, vomiting or diarrhea, disordered sleep, paranoid or aggressive behavior, and psychosis. Chronic methamphetamine abuse can result in severe dental caries, described as blackened, rotting, crumbling teeth. Severe, life-threatening methamphetamine toxicity may include hypertension, cardiac arrhythmia or cardiac failure, subarachnoid hemorrhage, ischemic stroke, intracerebral hemorrhage, convulsions, or coma. Methamphetamines increase the release of monoamine neurotransmitters (dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin) from presynaptic neurons. It is thought that the euphoric and reinforcing effects of this class of drugs are mediated through dopamine and the mesolimbic system, whereas the cardiovascular effects are related to norepinephrine. MRS studies of the brain suggest that chronic abusers have neuronal damage in the frontal areas and basal ganglia.
Therapy of acute methamphetamine overdose is largely symptomatic. Ammonium chloride may be useful to acidify the urine and enhance clearance of the drug. Hypertension may respond to sodium nitroprus-side or α-adrenergic antagonists. Sedatives may reduce agitation and other signs of central nervous system hyperactivity. Treatment of chronic methamphetamine dependence may be accomplished in either an inpatient or outpatient setting using strategies similar to those described earlier for cocaine abuse.
MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine), or ecstasy, is a derivative of methamphetamine. Ecstasy is usually taken orally but may be injected or inhaled; its effects last for 3–6 h. In addition to amphetamine-like effects, MDMA can induce hyperthermia and vivid hallucinations and other perceptual distortions. Recent studies have revealed that MDMA use is associated with cognitive and memory impairment and a mild withdrawal syndrome after cessation of use. The long-term consequences of recreational use of MDMA by young persons are poorly understood.
LYSERGIC ACID DIETHYLAMIDE (LSD)
The discovery of the psychedelic effects of LSD led to an epidemic of LSD abuse during the 1960s. Imposition of stringent constraints on the manufacture and distribution of LSD (classified as a Schedule I substance by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration), as well as public recognition that psychedelic experiences induced by LSD were a health hazard, have resulted in a reduction in LSD abuse. LSD still remains popular among adolescents and young adults, and there are indications that LSD use among young persons has been increasing in some areas in the United States.
LSD is a very potent hallucinogen; oral doses as low as 20 μg may induce profound psychological and physiologic effects. Tachycardia, hypertension, pupillary dilation, tremor, and hyperpyrexia occur within minutes following oral administration of 0.5–2 μg/kg. A variety of bizarre and often conflicting perceptual and mood changes, including visual illusions, synesthesias, and extreme lability of mood, usually occur within 30 min after LSD intake. These effects of LSD may persist for 12–18 h, even though the half-life of the drug is only 3 h.
The most frequent acute medical emergency associated with LSD use is a panic episode (the “bad trip”), which may persist up to 24 h. Management of this problem is best accomplished by supportive reassurance (“talking down”) and, if necessary, administration of small doses of anxiolytic drugs. Adverse consequences of chronic LSD use include enhanced risk for schizophreniform psychosis and derangements in memory function, problem solving, and abstract thinking. Treatment of these disorders is best carried out in specialized psychiatric facilities.
Tolerance develops rapidly for LSD-induced changes in psychological function when the drug is used one or more times per day for >4 days. Abrupt abstinence following continued use does not produce withdrawal signs or symptoms. There have been no clinical reports of death caused by the direct effects of LSD.
PHENCYCLIDINE (PCP)
Phencyclidine (PCP), a cyclohexylamine derivative, is widely used in veterinary medicine to briefly immobilize large animals and is sometimes described as a dissociative anesthetic. PCP binds to ionotropic N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in the nervous system, blocking ion current through these channels. PCP is easily synthesized; its abusers are primarily young people and polydrug users. It is used orally, by smoking, by snorting, or by IV injection. It is also used as an adulterant in THC, LSD, amphetamine, or cocaine. The most common street preparation, angel dust, is a white granular powder that contains 50–100% of the drug. Low doses (5 mg) produce agitation, excitement, impaired motor coordination, dysarthria, and analgesia. Physical signs of intoxication may include horizontal or vertical nystagmus, flushing, diaphoresis, and hyperacusis. Behavioral changes include distortions of body image, disorganization of thinking, and feelings of estrangement. Higher doses of PCP (5–10 mg) may produce profuse salivation, vomiting, myoclonus, fever, stupor, or coma. PCP doses of ≥10 mg cause convulsions, opisthotonus, and decerebrate posturing, which may be followed by prolonged coma.
The diagnosis of PCP overdose is difficult because the patient’s initial symptoms (anxiety, paranoia, delusions, hallucinations) may suggest an acute schizophrenic reaction. Confirmation of PCP use is possible by determination of PCP levels in serum or urine. PCP assays are available at most toxicologic centers. PCP remains in urine for 1–5 days following high-dose intake.
PCP overdose requires life-support measures, including treatment of coma, convulsions, and respiratory depression in an intensive care unit. There is no specific antidote or antagonist for PCP. PCP excretion from the body can be enhanced by gastric lavage and acidification of urine. Death from PCP overdose may occur as a consequence of some combination of pharyngeal hyper-secretion, hyperthermia, respiratory depression, severe hypertension, seizures, hypertensive encephalopathy, and intracerebral hemorrhage.
Acute psychosis associated with PCP use is a psychiatric emergency since patients may be at high risk for suicide or extreme violence toward others. Phenothiazines should not be used for treatment because these drugs potentiate PCP’s anticholinergic effects. Haloperidol (5 mg IM) has been administered on an hourly basis to induce suppression of psychotic behavior. PCP, like LSD and mescaline, produces vasospasm of cerebral arteries at relatively low doses. Chronic PCP use has been shown to induce insomnia, anorexia, severe social and behavioral changes, and, in some cases, chronic schizophrenia.
OTHER DRUGS OF ABUSE
A number of other pharmacologically diverse drugs of abuse are often referred to as “club drugs” because these are frequently used in bars, at concerts, and rave parties. Commonly abused club drugs include flunitrazepam, GHB, and ketamine and are described next. Methamphetamine, MDMA, and LSD are also considered club drugs and were described earlier in this chapter. Abuse of club drugs at high doses, especially in combination with alcohol, can be lethal and should be treated as a medical emergency. GHB and ketamine can be identified in blood, and flunitrazepam can be identified in urine and hair samples. Flunitrazepam and GHB toxicity can be treated with antagonists at benzodiazepine and GABAB receptors, respectively.
Flunitrazepam
Flunitrazepam (Rohypnol) is a benzodiazepine derivative primarily used for treatment of insomnia, but it has significant abuse potential because of its strong hypnotic, anxiolytic, and amnesia-producing effects. It is a club drug commonly referred to as a “date-rape drug” or “roofies.” The drug enhances GABAA receptor activity, and overdose can be treated with flumazenil, a benzodiazepine receptor antagonist. Flunitrazepam is typically used orally but can be snorted or injected. Concomitant use of alcohol or opiates is common, and this enhances the sedative and hypnotic effects of flunitrazepam and also the risk of motor vehicle accidents. Overdose can produce life-threatening respiratory depression and coma. Abrupt cessation after chronic use may result in a benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome consisting of anxiety, insomnia, disordered thinking, and seizures.
GHB
Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (Xyrem) is a sedative drug that is FDA-approved for the treatment of narcolepsy. It is classified as a club drug, is sometimes used in combination with alcohol or other drugs of abuse, and has been implicated in cases of date rape. GHB is usually taken orally and has no distinctive color or odor. Its stimulant properties are attributed to agonist activity at the GHB receptor, but it also has sedative effects at high doses that reflect its activity at GABAB receptors. GABAB antagonists can reverse GHB’s sedative effects, and opioid antagonists (naloxone, naltrexone) can attenuate GHB effects on dopamine release. Low doses of GHB may produce euphoria and disinhibition, whereas high doses result in nausea, agitation, convulsions, and sedation that can lead to unconsciousness and death from respiratory depression.
Ketamine
Ketamine (Ketaset, Ketalar) is a dissociative anesthetic, similar to phencyclidine (PCP). In veterinary medicine, it is used for brief immobilization. In clinical medicine, it is used for sedation, analgesia, and to supplement anesthesia. Ketamine increases heart rate and blood pressure, with less respiratory depression than other anesthetics. Ketamine’s popularity as a club drug appears to reflect its ability to induce a dissociative state and feelings of depersonalization, accompanied by intense hallucinations and subsequent amnesia. It can be administered orally, by smoking (usually in combination with tobacco and/or marijuana), or by IV or IM injection. Like PCP, it binds to NMDA receptors and acts as an uncompetitive NMDA antagonist. Ketamine has a complex profile of action and appears to be useful as an antidepressant in treatment-resistant patients and as an analgesic in chronic-pain patients. The extent to which chronic recreational use leads to memory impairment remains controversial.
POLYDRUG ABUSE
Although some drug abusers may prefer a particular drug, the concurrent use of multiple drugs is often reported. Polydrug abuse often involves substances that may have different pharmacologic effects from the preferred drug. For example, concurrent use of such dissimilar compounds as stimulants and opiates or stimulants and alcohol is common. The diversity of reported drug use combinations suggests that achieving a subjective change in state, rather than any particular direction of change (stimulation or sedation), may be the primary reinforcer in polydrug abuse. There is also evidence that intoxication with alcohol, opiates, and cocaine is associated with increased tobacco smoking. There are relatively few controlled studies of multiple drug interactions. However, the combined use of cocaine, heroin, and alcohol increases the risk for toxic effects and adverse medical consequences. One determinant of polydrug use patterns is the relative availability and cost of the drugs. For example, alcohol abuse, with its attendant medical complications, is one of the most serious problems encountered in former heroin addicts participating in methadone maintenance programs.
The physician must recognize that perpetuation of polydrug abuse and drug dependence is not necessarily a symptom of an underlying emotional disorder. Neither alleviation of anxiety nor reduction of depression accounts for initiation and perpetuation of polydrug abuse. Severe depression and anxiety are the consequences of polydrug abuse as frequently as they are the antecedents. Interestingly, some adverse consequences of drug use may be reinforcing and contribute to the continuation of polydrug abuse.
Adequate treatment of polydrug abuse, as well as other forms of drug abuse, requires innovative intervention programs. The first step in successful treatment is detoxification, a process that may be difficult when several drugs with different pharmacologic actions (e.g., alcohol, opiates, and cocaine) have been abused. Since patients may not recall or may deny simultaneous multiple drug use, diagnostic evaluation should always include urinalysis for qualitative detection of psycho-active substances and their metabolites. Treatment of polydrug abuse often requires hospitalization or inpatient residential care during detoxification and the initial phase of drug abstinence. When possible, specialized facilities for the care and treatment of drug-dependent persons should be used. Outpatient detoxification of polydrug abuse patients is likely to be ineffective and may be dangerous.
Drug abuse disorders often respond to effective treatment, but episodes of relapse may occur unpredictably. The physician should continue to assist patients during relapse and recognize that occasional recurrent drug use is not unusual in this complex behavioral disorder.
aDeceased.