William B. Geissler
DEFINITION
A bimodal age distribution exists for patients with distal radius fractures (ie, young adults vs elderly persons), and they frequently have a different mechanism of injury.
Patients 65 years of age or older have an annual incidence of 8 to 10 fractures of the distal radius per 1000 person-years.
The incidence is seven times higher in women than in men.
Sixteen percent of white women and 23% of white men will sustain a fracture of the distal radius after the age of 50 years.
Fractures of the distal radius are one of the most common skeletal injuries treated by orthopaedic surgeons.
These injuries account for one-sixth of all fractures that are evaluated in the Emergency Department.
Displaced intra-articular fractures of the distal radius are a unique subset of radius fractures.18
These fractures are a high-energy injury.
This high-energy injury results in comminuted fracture patterns.
These fractures are less amenable to traditional closed manipulation and casting.
The prognosis for these fractures depends on the amount of residual radius shortening, both radiocarpal and radioulnar articular congruity, and associated soft tissue injuries.22,24
ANATOMY
The distal radius serves as a plateau to support the carpus.
The distal radius has three concave articular surfaces: the scaphoid fossa, the lunate fossa, and the sigmoid notch.
The distal articular surface of the radius has a radial inclination averaging 22 degrees and palmar tilt averaging 11 degrees.
Radial-based volar and dorsal ligaments arise from the distal radius to support the wrist.
The sigmoid notch of the distal radius articulates with the ulnar head about which it rotates.
The distal radioulnar joint (DRUJ) is primarily stabilized by the triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC).
The sigmoid notch angles distally and medially at an average of 22 degrees.
PATHOGENESIS
The biomechanical characteristics of each fracture type depend on the mechanism of injury.
Fernandez and Geissler4 developed a classification based on the mechanism of injury. They noted that the associated ligamentous lesions, subluxations, and associated carpal fractures are related directly to the degree of energy absorbed by the distal radius.
Type I fractures are bending fractures of the metaphysis in which one cortex fails to tensile stress and the opposite one undergoes a certain degree of comminution (eg, extra-articular Smith or Colles' fractures).
Type II fractures are shearing fractures of the joint surface (eg, radial styloid fractures, Barton's fracture).
Type III fractures are compression fractures of the joint surface with impaction of the subcondral and metaphyseal cancellous bone (ie, intra-articular comminuted fractures).
Type IV fractures are avulsion fractures of ligamentous attachments, including radial styloid and ulnar styloid fractures, and are associated with radiocarpal fracturedislocations.
Type V fractures are high-energy injuries that involve a combination of bending, compression, shearing, and avulsion mechanisms or bone loss.
Several studies have shown that a high incidence of associated soft tissue injuries is seen with displaced intra-articular distal radius fractures.9,11–13,17,19,20
Arthroscopic studies demonstrate a high incidence of injury to the triangular fibrocartilage complex, followed by the scapholunate interosseous ligament, and then the lunotriquetral interosseous ligament (which is the least injured).
A spectrum of injury occurs to the interosseous ligament in which it attenuates and eventually tears and the degree of rotation between the carpal bones increases.
Geissler et al defined an arthroscopic classification of interosseous ligament tears that helps define the degree of ligament injury and secondary instability as well as proposes treatment (Table 1; see also Chap. HA-41).
NATURAL HISTORY
Intra-articular fractures of the distal radius have two pathologies: the associated global injury to the soft tissues and the injury to the bone itself.
The natural history for an intra-articular fracture of the distal radius depends on restoration of anatomy as well as detection and management of any associated soft tissue injuries.1,4
Knirk and Jupiter13 documented the importance of articular restoration over extra-articular orientation in predicting outcomes for fractures of the distal radius.
They showed solid evidence that the largest tolerable articular step-off is 2 mm.
They demonstrate that the better the restoration of the articular surface, the better the outcome.
A loss in radius length of 2.5 mm will shift the normal load transmitted across the ulna from 20% to 42%, which may lead to various stages of ulnar impaction syndrome.
Untreated complete tears of the scapholunate interosseous ligament, which are highly associated with radial styloid fractures, may progress to a wrist with scapholunate advanced collapse.
PATIENT HISTORY AND PHYSICAL FINDINGS
A thorough history should be obtained, including the circumstances surrounding the injury as well as any additional injuries.
Neurologic basis
Cardiac basis
Patients' level of independence, dominant hand, status with assisted devices, work, activity level, and support structure should be determined.
Physical examination, while concentrating on the wrist, should also include the hand, elbow, and shoulder to check for concomitant injuries.
The hand, wrist, arm, and shoulder must be carefully inspected for open injury so that tetanus and antibiotic prophylaxis may be initiated if necessary.
Thorough distal sensory and motor function examination should be carried out in an organized manner.
Vascular examination should include palpation of both the radial and ulnar pulses and determination of capillary refill time.
Precise palpation is used to define areas of potential trauma.
Diminished sensibility, pallor, altered capillary refill, increased tenseness of the soft tissues, and pain out of proportion should raise suspicion for significant soft tissue injury, including compartment syndrome.
IMAGING AND OTHER DIAGNOSTIC STUDIES
Posteroanterior (PA), oblique, and lateral radiographs are the primary radiographic workup for distal radius fractures.
Contralateral radiographs of the uninvolved extremity are useful to compare radial inclination, ulnar variance, and sigmoid notch anatomy.
PA projections are useful to evaluate the radial inclination, radius height, presence of ulnar styloid fractures, widening of the DRUJ, widening of intracarpal spaces, and intra-articular involvement (FIG 1A).
Standard radiographic parameters of the distal radius include radial inclination of 23 degrees (range 13–30), radius length of 12 mm (range 8–18 mm), and volar tilt of 12 degrees (range 1–21 degrees).
Ulnar variance shoulde be measured with the shoulder in 90 degrees of abduction, the elbow at 90 degrees of flexion, and the wrist in neutral pronation-supination.
A lateral projection is used to assess volar and dorsal tilt of the distal fragment, dislocation or subluxation of the DRUJ or carpus, lunate angulation, and dorsal comminution (FIG 1B).
FIG 1 • A. PA radiographic view showing a minimally displaced radial styloid fracture fragment. B. The lateral view shows a complete fracture-dislocation of the wrist.
A modified lateral radiograph with the beam angulating 10 to 30 degrees proximally improves visualization of the articular surface and evaluation of the volar rim of the lunate facet represented by the anterior teardrop.
An additional 30-degree anteroposterior (AP) cephalic projection is useful to evaluate the dorsal ulnar margin of the distal radius.
Oblique radiographs are very helpful, because major fracture fragments may be rotated out of their anatomic planes.
CT evaluation, particularly three-dimensional CT, can further delineate fragment location, joint compression, and rotation.
MRI evaluation is useful in assessing for associated soft tissue injuries such as TFCC tears, interosseous ligament injuries, and carpal fractures.
Radiographic signs that demonstrate that the distal radius fracture is likely unstable and closed reduction would be insufficient include15:
Lateral tilt greater than 20 degrees dorsal
Dorsal comminution greater than 50% of the width
Initial fragment displacement greater than 1 cm
Volar translation greater than 2 mm
Initial radius shortening more than 5 mm
Intra-articular step-off greater than 2 mm
Associated ulna fracture
Severe osteoporosis.
Age greater than 60 years
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
Carpal bone fracture
Metacarpal or phalangeal fracture
DRUJ disruption
Essex-Lopresti lesion
Interosseous ligament tear
Carpal dislocation (perilunate)
NONOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT
Displaced fractures of the distal radius are reduced using an adequate anesthetic agent.
Knowledge of the mechanisms of injury helps facilitate manual reduction. Force is applied opposite the force that caused the fracture.
Gentle traction is necessary to disimpact the fracture fragments, followed by palmar translation of the hand and carpus in respect to the radius.
The radius articular surface will rotate around the intact volar cortical lip to restore volar inclination with palmar translation.
Care must be taken to avoid trauma to the skin during the reduction maneuver, particularly in elderly patients where the skin may be fragile.
A splint is supplied following the reduction. No consensus has been established regarding wrist or forearm position, longarm versus short-arm immobilization, or splint versus cast.
Extreme positions of wrist flexion and ulnar deviation should be avoided.
Postreduction radiographs are taken in plaster.
Depending on stability of the fracture, most patients treated nonoperatively require weekly visits for the first 3 weeks to monitor fracture reduction.
In patients older than 65 years, one third of initially undisplaced fractures subsequently collapsed to some degree.
One study of elderly patients with moderately displaced fractures of the distal radius found that two thirds of the correction obtained by closed manipulation was lost at 5 weeks.
Patients with minimally displaced or nondisplaced fractures of the distal radius treated nonoperatively must be made aware of possible complications, including rupture of the extensor pollicis longus tendon, carpal tunnel syndrome, and compartment syndrome.
SURGICAL MANAGEMENT
Distal radius fractures without extensive metaphyseal communition are ideal candidates for arthroscopic-assisted fixation with K-wires or cannulated screws.7,8
Radial styloid fractures
Impacted fractures
Die punch fractures
Three-part T-type fractures and four-part fractures with metaphyseal comminution are best treated with a combination of volar plate stabilization. Wrist arthroscopy is used as an adjunct to fine-tune the articular reduction and evaluate for associated soft tissue lesions.
Distal radius fractures that may be minimally displaced, and fractures with strongly suspected associated soft tissue injury, also are candidates for arthroscopic-assisted fixation to stabilize the fracture but, more importantly, to evaluate and treat the acute associated soft tissue injury.
Stabilization of associated ulnar styloid fragments is controversial.13 Wrist arthroscopy provides a rationale as to when to stabilize an ulnar styloid fragment.
Preoperative Planning
All radiographic studies are reviewed.
Equipment needed for arthroscopic treatment and for open stabilization is made available.
Small joint instrumentation is essential for arthroscopicassisted fixation of distal radius fractures. The small joint arthroscope is approximately 2.7 mm in diameter, and even smaller scopes may be used if desired. In addition, a small joint shaver (3.5 mm or less) is useful to clear fracture debris and hematoma.
The ideal timing for arthroscopic-assisted fixation of distal radius fractures is 3 to 10 days following injury.6
Earlier attempts at fixation may be complicated by soft tissue swelling and troublesome bleeding, obscuring visualization.
After 10 days, the fracture fragments start to become sticky and more difficult to percutaneously elevate and reduce.
Positioning
Arthroscopic-assisted fixation of distal radius fractures may be performed with the arm suspended vertically in a traction tower, horizontally in a traction tower, or with finger traps applied attached to weights hanging over the edge of the hand table.
Wrist arthroscopy in the horizontal position may make it easier to simultaneously monitor the reduction fluoroscopically and place hardware. However, it does not allow for simultaneous volar access to the wrist.
Suspending the wrist in a vertical position with a traction tower allows simultaneous access to both the volar and dorsal aspects of the wrist. This is particularly useful when wrist arthroscopy is used as an adjunct to volar plate fixation of the distal radius fracture.
A new traction tower has been designed to allow simultaneous evaluatation of the intra-articular reduction of the distal radius arthroscopically and fluoroscopically (FIG 2A).
The surgeon may stabilize a comminuted fracture of the distal radius with a plate and simultaneously evaluate the articular reduction arthroscopically.
The traction tower allows for traction of the wrist in either the vertical or horizontal planes, depending on the surgeon's preference (FIG 2B).
Approach
The wrist is suspended in a traction tower, and the standard dorsal 3/4 viewing portal, 4/5 or 6R working portal, and 6U inflow portal are made.
It is difficult to palpate the normal extensor tendon landmarks for traditional wrist arthroscopy in patients who sustain a fracture of the distal radius because of swelling.10 However, the bony landmarks usually can still be palpated. These bony landmarks include the bases of the metacarpals, the dorsal lip of the radius, and the ulnar head.
The 3/4 portal is made in line with the radial border of the long finger. It is very useful to place a no. 18 needle into the proposed location of the 3/4 portal before making a skin incision.
If the portal is placed too proximal, the arthroscope may be placed within the fracture pattern itself. If it is placed too distal, it can injure the articular surface of the carpus.
Once the precise ideal location of the portal is located, the portal is made by pulling the skin with the sugeon's thumb against the tip of a no. 11 blade. Blunt dissection is carried down with a hemostat, and the arthroscope, with a blunt trocar, is introduced into the dorsal 3/4 portal.
This technique decreases potential injury to cutaneous nerves.
Thorough irrigation of the joint is necessary to wash out fracture hematoma and debris and improve visualization. Inflow may be provided through the arthroscope cannula or separately through a no. 14 needle into the 6U portal.
Use of a separate 6U inflow portal is recommended. The small-joint arthroscopy cannula does not allow as much space between the cannula and the arthroscope, limiting the amount of flow through the cannula.
Outflow to the wrist is provided through intervenous extension tubing connected to the arthroscope cannula.
The 4/5 working portal is made in line with the mid-axis of the ring metacarpal. Alternatively, the 6R working portal is made just radial to the palpable extensor carpi ulnaris tendon.
A no. 18 needle is placed into the joint and should lie just distal to the articular disc.
A 4/5 or 6R portal usually is located just proximal to the 3/4 portal because of the natural radial slope of the distal radius.
FIG 2 • A. This traction tower (Acumed, Hillsboro, OR) uses a suspension bar at the side rather than at the center of the wrist. This allows easy fluoroscopic evaluation of the fracture reduction, with simultaneous full access to the volar and dorsal aspects of the wrist. B. The tower can be flexed into a horizontal position for surgeons who prefer to treat distal radius fractures in that position.
TECHNIQUES
RADIAL STYLOID FRACTURES
An isolated fracture of the radial styloid is an ideal fracture pattern to manage arthroscopically, especially for the surgeon beginning to gain experience in arthroscopeassisted fixation of distal radius fractures.
In addition, radial styloid fractures have a high incidence of associated injury to the scapholunate interosseous ligament, which is best assessed arthroscopically.
Insert one or two guidewires from a cannulated screw system percutaneously into the radial styloid—not across the fracture site—using a wire driver in oscillation mode.
Evaluate the position of the wires under fluoroscopy to ensure they are centered in the radial styloid fragment.
Suspend the wrist in a traction tower and establish the standard arthroscopic portals.
Insert the scope in the dorsal 3/4 portal and clear the joint of debris and hematoma.
Transfer the arthroscope to the 6R or 4/5 portal to look across the wrist and effectively judge rotation and reduction of the radial styloid fragment.
Using the previously placed guidewires as joysticks, manipulate and anatomically reduce the fracture fragment under direct arthroscopic observation.
A trocar can be inserted through the 3/4 portal to help further guide the reduction of the radial styloid fragment (TECH FIG 1A,B).
Once the fracture is judged to be absolutely anatomic, the guidewires are advanced across the fracture site into the radius shaft and evaluated under fluoroscopy (TECH FIG 1C).
In many cases, the fracture reduction may look anatomic under fluoroscopy, but when viewed arthroscopically, the radial styloid fragment is seen to be slightly rotated.3
Guidewires alone can be used to stabilize the fracture, but cannulated screws (with or without heads) are recommended (TECH FIG 1D,E).
Cannulated screws decrease soft tissue irritation and potential pin track infection as compared with Kwires.
TECH FIG 1 • A. Arthroscopic view of the patient whose radiographs are seen in Figure 1. The arthroscope is in the 6R portal looking across the wrist, and a blunt trochar is in the 3/4 portal. The displaced radial styloid fragment is well visualized. B. A combination of joysticks inserted into the radial styloid fragment and a trochar inserted into the 3/4 portal allows anatomic reduction of the displaced radial styloid fragment and radiocarpal joint. C. The radial styloid fragment is anatomically reduced (with no residual rotation) and stabilized. D. PA view demonstrating anatomic reduction to the radial styloid fragment. Headless cannulated screws are used, if possible, to avoid soft tissue irritation. E. Lateral view showing anatomic restoration to the radial styloid fragment and restoration of the carpus in line with the radius.
THREE-PART FRACTURES
Three-part fractures that involve a displaced fracture of the radial styloid and a lunate facet fragment without metaphyseal communution are ideal for arthroscopic-assisted reduction (TECH FIG 2A,B).
Reduce and provisionally stabilize the radial styloid fragment with guidewires under fluoroscopic guidance.
The radial styloid serves as a landmark to which the depressed lunate facet fragment is reduced.
Suspend the wrist in the traction tower, establish portals, and evacuate the fracture debris and hematoma.
The depressed lunate facet fragment is best seen with the arthroscope in the 3/4 portal (TECH FIG 2C,D).
Percutaneously place a no. 18 needle directly over the depressed fragment as viewed arthroscopically.
Insert a large K-wire about 2 cm proximal to the previously placed no. 18 needle to percutaneously elevate the depressed lunate facet fragment.
Use a bone tenaculum to further diminish the gap between the radial styloid and lunate facet fragments.
Place guidewires transversely under the subchondral surface of the radius from the radial styloid into the anatomically reduced lunate facet fragment.
It is important to pronate and supinate the wrist following placement of the transverse pins to ensure the guidewires have not violated the DRUJ. The concave nature of the DRUJ makes radiographic assessment difficult.
Consider insertion of bone graft to support the reduced lunate fragment and avoid late settling.
Make a small incision between the fourth and fifth dorsal compartments.
Use cancellous allograft bone chips or bone substitutes.
If feasible, place headless cannulated screws to stabilize both the radial styloid and the impacted lunate facet fragments (TECH FIG 2E–H).
TECH FIG 2 • A. PA view showing a impacted scaphoid facet fracture fragment with an obvious injury to the scapholunate interosseous ligament. B. Lateral view showing a dorsal rim fracture fragment. C.The arthroscope is in the 6R portal, demonstrating the impacted scaphoid facet fracture fragment. This would be quite difficult to view through an open arthrotomy, but is well visualized arthroscopically under bright light and magnified conditions. D. The impacted scaphoid facet fragment is elevated back to the volar rim, using the rim as a landmark to judge rotation. E,F. Geissler grade III tear involving the scapholunate interosseous ligament as seen through the 3/4 portal (E) and the radial midcarpal portal (F). (continued)
TECH FIG 2 • (continued) G,H. PA and lateral radiographs showing anatomic reduction to the impacted scaphoid facet fracture. (The tear of the scapholunate interosseous ligament also was acutely repaired.)
THREE- AND FOUR-PART FRACTURES WITH METAPHYSEAL COMMINUTION
A combination of open surgery, using a volar plate for stability, and arthroscopy, as an adjunct to assist the articular reduction, is used if metaphyseal comminution is present (TECH FIG 3).
Volar plate stabilization is very stable and allows for early range of motion and rehabilitation as compared to K-wires or headless screws alone.
Open Reduction and Stabilization
Perform a standard volar approach and do not open the radiocarpal joint capsule (TECH FIG 4A).
The radial styloid fragment and the volar ulnar fragment are reduced to the shaft under direct visualization. The radial styloid fragment is provisionally pinned.
Apply a volar distal radius locking plate to stabilize the volar bone fragments (TECH FIG 4B).
Place a screw in the proximal portion of the plate first, to reduce the plate to the shaft.
Provisionally pin the distal fragments through the plate.
Manipulate the articular fragments under fluoroscopy to obtain as anatomic a reduction as possible (TECH FIG 4C,D).
Suspend the wrist in the traction tower and reduce the articular fragments arthroscopically (TECH FIG 4E,F).
If articular reduction is not anatomic, remove the pins and fine-tune the reduction.
Once the fracture reduction is thought to be anatomic, place the distal screws through the plate (TECH FIG 4G–I).
It is important that the fracture be reduced to the plate, with no gap between the plate and the bone. This can be achieved by flexion of the wrist in the tower and by insertion of a non-locking screw first, before the insertion of standard locking screws.
Place the remaining proximal and distal screws if the reduction is anatomic under both fluoroscopy and arthroscopy.
TECH FIG 3 • A. The PA radiograph shows a displaced fracture of the radial styloid. B. This lateral radiograph shows metaphyseal comminution associated with the displaced radial styloid fragment. Because of the metaphyseal comminution, it was decided to stabilize the fracture using a volar plate.
TECH FIG 4 • A. A standard volar approach is made, centered over the flexor carpi radialis tendon, and the fracture site is exposed. B. A volar distal radius locking plate (Acumed, Hillsboro, OR) is applied. The initial screw is placed through the proximal plate to secure the plate to the shaft. C. The intra-articular reduction is viewed under fluoroscopy and provisionally pinned. A displaced intra-articular fracture fragment can still be identified. D.The arthroscope is in the 3/4 portal, showing the volar capsule blocking reduction of the radial styloid fragment. E. Joysticks previously inserted into the radial styloid fragment are then used to control and anatomically reduce the radial styloid fragment. F. The arthroscope is in the 6R portal looking across the wrist. Anatomic reduction of the radial styloid fragment is documented. G. Once the anatomic restoration of the articular surface is evaluated both arthroscopically and fluoroscopically, the distal screws are placed in the plate. H. Fluoroscopic view showing anatomic restoration to the articular surface of the distal radius. I. The patient had an associated osteochondral fracture of the lunate, not visible on plain radiographs. The displaced fragment is arthroscopically removed.
Reduction and Stabilization of a Dorsal Die Punch Fragment
It is not possible to see the reduction of a dorsal die punch fragment through the volar approach when stabilized with a plate. Arthroscopy can be helpful in this scenario.
Insert the volar plate as previously described and provisionally fix the device to the radius.
Frequently, the dorsal fragment may still be slightly proximal in relation to the radial shaft.
The dorsal die punch fragment is best seen with the arthroscope in the 6R portal.
Establish the volar radial portal between the radioscaphocapitate ligament and the long radiolunate ligment, as viewed directly through the previous performed volar approach.16
Percutaneously elevate and anatomically reduce the dorsal die punch fragment as viewed arthroscopically.
Once this has been achieved, place the screws into the plate and observe their path arthroscopically to ensure adequate stabilization of the dorsal die punch fragment.
ULNAR STYLOID FRACTURES
Following anatomic reduction of the distal radius fracture, insert the arthroscope in the dorsal 3/4 portal and the probe in the 6R portal. Palpate the tension of the articular disc.
Good tension indicates that the majority of the peripheral TFCC fibers are intact or still attached to the proximal ulna.
A peripheral tear of the articular disc is repaired arthroscopically when detected.21
Stabilization of a large ulnar styloid fragment is considered when the articular disc is lax by palpation and no peripheral TFCC is identified (TECH FIG 5).
In this instance, the majority of the fibers of the TFCC are attached to the displaced ulnar styloid fragment.
Make a small incision between the extensor carpi ulnaris and the flexor carpi ulnaris tendons and identify the fracture site.
Retrieve the distal fragment, which often displaces in a distal and radial direction.
Mobilize the styloid fragment using a no. 15 blade, taking care to protect the TFCC insertion.
Reduce the fragment anatomically, under direct visualization, and insert a guidewire in a retrograde manner for provisional stability.
Stabilize the ulnar styloid fragment using either a tension band technique (with wire and two K-wires) or, preferably, using a micro headless cannulated screw.
Place the cannulated headless screw over the guidewire and verify fracture reduction with fluoroscopy.
Insert the arthroscope into the 3/4 portal and the probe into the 6R portal to document restoration of TFCC tension.
TECH FIG 5 • In this case, following reduction to the distal radius fracture, the articular disc was palpated and found to be lax but with no peripheral tear. The large ulnar styloid fragment was reduced with a micro Acutrak screw (Acumed, Hillsboro, OR).
POSTOPERATIVE CARE
The degree of postoperative immobilization depends on numerous factors, including the mode of fracture stabilization, the quality of the bone for internal fixation, the stability of the fixation, and the management of any associated soft tissue injuries that were addressed during the arthroscopic evaluation.
Immediate range of motion of the digits and wrist is initiated in patients with volar plate fixation with good bone stock and solid fixation.
In patients with soft osteopenic bone with volar plate fixation, digital range of motion exercises are initiated immediately, but wrist range of motion is delayed approximately 3 to 4 weeks to permit some fracture healing.
Soft bone may collapse around the rigid plate.
In patients without metaphyseal comminution treated by arthroscopically assisted stabilization with cannulated screws, range of motion is initiated as the patient tolerates.
In patients treated with percutaneous K-wires, the wrist is immobilized until the wires are removed, usually 4 to 6 weeks after surgery.
A patient with an unstable DRUJ treated by TFCC repair or ulnar styloid reduction and fixation is restricted from pronation and supination for 2 to 4 weeks.
OUTCOMES
The literature is relatively sparse regarding the results of arthroscopically assisted fixation of displaced intra-articular distal radius fractures.
A comparison study of 12 open and 12 arthroscopic reductions of comminuted AO type VII and VIII fractures of the distal radius found that the arthroscopic group had increased range of motion as compared to the open stabilization group.23
A second comparison study of 38 patients who underwent arthroscopically assisted fixation compared to open reduction found the arthroscopically assisted group had better results and improved range of motion.2
One study compared 15 patients with arthroscopically assisted fixation to 15 patients who underwent closed reduction and external fixation.21 In this study, there were 10 tears of the triangular fibrocartilage complex in the group that underwent arthroscopic reduction, of which seven were peripheral and repaired. There were no signs of distal radioulnar joint instability at final follow-up visit. In the 15 patients who underwent stabilization by external fixation alone, four patients had continued complaints of instability of the distal radial joint, very possibly the result of undiagnosed and untreated TFCC tears.
COMPLICATIONS
Failure of fixation
Late settling of the fracture despite fixation
Flexor and extensor tendon irritation
Painful metal requiring removal
Neuromas of the dorsal sensory branch of the radial and ulnar nerves
Carpal tunnel syndrome
Reflex sympathetic dystrophy
Wrist and hand stiffness
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