Operative Techniques in Orthopaedic Surgery (4 Volume Set) 1st Edition

325. Thumb Carpometacarpal Joint Resection Arthroplasty

Matthew M. Tomaino

DEFINITION

images Osteoarthritis, or more appropriately osteoarthrosis, is a common problem in the hand. The trapeziometacarpal joint is commonly affected, second in frequency only to the distal interphalangeal joint. Trapeziometacarpal joint osteoarthritis, however, can be much more disabling secondary to pain and weakness of grip and pinch strength.

images The surgical management of symptomatic basilar joint arthrosis varies according to the anatomy, radiographic staging, intraoperative confirmation of disease stage, and patient requirements.

ANATOMY

images The thumb carpometacarpal (CMC) joint is a biconcave joint, allowing for motion in three planes: flexion-extension, abduction-adduction, and pronation-supination.

images There are minimal constraints from an osseous standpoint, making the ligamentous structures extremely important in providing stability to the base of the thumb. A total of 16 ligaments have been described around the thumb CMC joint, 7 of which are primary stabilizers of the thumb metacarpal (TM).

images The superficial and deep anterior oblique, dorsal radial, posterior oblique, ulnar collateral, intermetacarpal, and dorsal intermetacarpal ligaments directly stabilize the TM, while the remainder serve to stabilize the trapezium, allowing for a stable foundation for the thumb to rest on (FIG 1).1

PATHOGENESIS

images The pathogenesis of CMC joint arthrosis is multifactorial, involving biochemical and biomechanical influences. The synovial fluid within the joints contains cytokines that invariably play a role in cartilage degradation and decreased ability to withstand the loads generated at the joint during daily activities.8 Although not clearly delineated, estrogen or estrogenrelated compounds probably play some protective role, which may explain the increased incidence of osteoarthritis in postmenopausal women (10 to 15:1).

images The palmar or anterior oblique ligament (AOL), or so-called beak ligament, has been shown to be the most important stabilizing ligament of the thumb. Degeneration or functional incompetence of this ligament leads to laxity, abnormal translation of the metacarpal on the trapezium, increased shear forces, and resultant abnormal wear patterns. This eburnation of the articular cartilage initially occurs along the palmar aspect of the joint.9 With progression of disease, osteophytes develop and eburnation progresses throughout the entire joint surface.

images Osteoarthrosis can also develop from damage and disruption of the articular cartilage. Any fracture through the metacarpal or trapezium joint surfaces yield arthrosis. Anatomic restoration of the joint surface can minimize this sequela but cannot eliminate the risk entirely. Paradoxically, however, a Bennett fracture may protect the joint from the development of osteoarthritis, assuming subluxation has been treated, by virtue of consequential unloading of the volar aspect of the joint.

images

FIG 1  Carpometacarpal thumb joint.

NATURAL HISTORY

images Arthrosis of the thumb CMC joint begins along the palmar aspect of the metacarpal secondary to laxity of the AOL. As the process progresses, the entire base of the metacarpal and distal trapezium becomes involved.

images There is initial eburnation of the cartilage, which progresses to osteophyte formation. As the disease continues, the TM assumes an adducted position and the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joint may compensate by becoming hyperextensile, resulting in varying degrees of MCP joint hyperextension.

images The disease can involve all the trapezial articulations as well as the scaphotrapezoidal joint.14

PATIENT HISTORY AND PHYSICAL FINDINGS

images Thumb CMC joint arthrosis often presents with pain at the base of the metacarpal. The pain may or may not be present at rest. It will be exacerbated with activities involving loading the TM base, such as turning a doorknob, twisting a lid off a jar, or turning a key.

images With advanced disease, the thumb subluxes in a dorsal direction and becomes fixed in adduction. This manifests as a prominence at the base of the thumb and decreased ability to abduct the thumb away from the palm. In an effort to compensate for this, the MCP joint will often hyperextend, creating a zig-zag deformity.

images Symptoms do not always correlate with the clinical or radiographic appearance, meaning that a patient may have advanced clinical and radiographic disease but be minimally symptomatic. Conversely, a patient may have substantial symptoms with minimal radiographic changes and no clinical deformity at rest.

images Other conditions causing pain at the base of the thumb must be eliminated, such as De Quervain disease, trigger thumb, and carpal tunnel syndrome. Although more than one condition may exist, the physical examination can usually determine the most troubled area.

images Physical examination includes the following:

images Point tenderness assessment: With the TM adducted, the CMC joint is palpated beneath the thenars. Tenderness confirms the clinical significance of changes seen on radiographs.

images Reproduction of symptoms on the CMC grind test confirms the CMC joint as a site disease.

images Key pinch assessment: If dynamic collapse accompanies pinch, MCP joint fusion or capsulodesis is recommended (FIG 2).

images

FIG 2  Dynamic collapse of the thumb on key pinch testing.

IMAGING AND OTHER DIAGNOSTIC STUDIES

images Plain radiographs are the imaging modality of choice for evaluation of thumb CMC joint arthrosis. These include a pronated AP (Robert view), lateral, and a 30-degree posteroanterior stress view (FIG 3).

images Eaton and Littler have described a radiographic staging system, which is commonly used, but Tomaino et al14 have emphasized routine assessment of the scaphotrapezoidal joint, both radiographically and intraoperatively, to rule out scaphotrapezoidal arthritis—what they termed stage V disease.

images Stage I: normal-appearing or widened joint space secondary to synovitis

images Stage II: joint space narrowing and osteophyte formation smaller than 2 mm

images Stage III: joint space narrowing with osteophytes larger than 2 mm

images Stage IV: scaphotrapezial joint space involvement in addition to narrowing of the TM joint

images

FIG 3  Preoperative PA stress and lateral radiographs of the right thumb.

images Stage V: stage IV appearance with the addition of narrowing or osteophytes in the scaphotrapezoid joint

images The scaphotrapezoid joint is not specifically addressed in this system and may be difficult to assess radiographically, but it should always be assessed clinically during operative intervention because it may be a source of continued pain.

DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS

images De Quervain disease

images Trigger thumb or stenosing tenosynovitis

images Carpal tunnel syndrome

NONOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT

images Most patients with symptomatic thumb CMC joint arthrosis benefit from a trial of conservative therapy, which may include corticosteroid injection, thenar isometric strengthening exercises, and splinting.

images Although this will not eliminate the problem or alter the underlying disease process, conservative treatment often reduces symptoms, at least transiently, allowing the patient the opportunity to plan for surgical treatment at the most opportune time.

images Differential injection of steroids can also be helpful to assess how much of a patient's symptoms are coming from the thumb CMC joint versus other areas (carpal tunnel or De Quervain disease).

SURGICAL MANAGEMENT

images The indications for surgical intervention for symptomatic thumb basilar joint arthrosis include pain and weakness.

images There are multiple procedures used to treat symptomatic CMC thumb arthritis, many of which have merit depending on the extent of arthritic involvement.

images Pan-trapezial involvement contraindicates the use of arthrodesis or implant arthroplasty, in particular, because of the risk of incomplete pain relief.

images Arthrodesis may be preferable in younger, high-demand patients such as laborers.

images Resection arthroplasty can be performed with ligament reconstruction or without (hematoma distraction arthroplasty).4,6

images The flexor carpi radialis (FCR) and abductor pollicis longus (APL) are most commonly used when performing “suspensionplasty.”

Preoperative Planning

images Consideration should be given to the age of the patient and the demands placed on the thumb.

images Dynamic collapse of the MCP joint during key pinch necessitates MCP fusion or capsulodesis.

images Intraoperative evaluation of the scaphotrapezotrapezoidal (STT) joint is critical to ensure adequate pain relief after surgery. Thus, hemitrapeziectomy is rarely performed once the decision to proceed with conventional resection arthroplasty is made. If retention of the proximal trapezium is elected because of the absence of STT disease, Artelon resurfacing or joint arthroplasty may be elected.

images Intraoperative assessment of the scaphotrapezoidal joint is recommended, and if changes exist, a 2to 3-mm resection of the proximal trapezoid is performed.14 Care is taken not to injure the capitate.

images Suspensionplasty ensures stability of the TM during pinch and grip, resisting the cantilever bending forces that will potentially lead to subluxation and proximal migration compared to trapeziectomy alone.

images Intermediate-term outcome of the hematoma distraction arthroplasty suggests that this procedure may have a role in providing excellent pain relief in well-selected patients for whom grip strength is a less important issue.4

Positioning

images The patient is supine and the involved hand and arm are supported by a hand table.

Approach

images Trapezium excision and ligament reconstruction and suspensionplasty can be performed using the Wagner (volar) approach or a dorsal approach. I prefer the dorsal approach except when performing an Eaton ligament reconstruction, in which case a volar approach is used. I have modified my technique since performing the ligament reconstruction and tendon interposition (LRTI) arthroplasty exclusively during the first 10 years of practice.11,12

images Over the past 5 years I have performed a suspensionplasty using a distally based slip of the APL tendon, which obviates the need for a bony channel. This is a variation of other suspensionplasty techniques.7,10,15 In addition, I no longer pin the joint or interpose tissue into the space remaining after trapezial resection. The procedure is performed more expeditiously and seems to be associated with equivalent outcomes.13

TECHNIQUES

LRTI ARTHROPLASTY USING THE FCR TENDON 11,12

Incision and Superficial Dissection

images A triradiate is drawn before the tourniquet is inflated to allow palpation of the radial pulse in the vicinity of the anatomic snuffbox; this typically identifies the scaphotrapezial joint.

images When a substantial shoulder sign (prominence associated with dorsal subluxation of the proximal phalanx trapezium) exists, it can be difficult to identify the TM joint. In these cases, palpation of the scaphoid tuberosity is helpful to ensure that the incision is neither too distal nor too proximal.

images The triradiate incision facilitates dissection of the radial artery off the dorsal capsule; when first extensor compartment release is planned, however, a longitudinal incision may be preferred.

images At the outset, the radial sensory nerve must be identified and small branches must not be skeletonized or divided. This may cause postoperative radial sensory neuritis and even transient reflex sympathetic dystrophy.

images Place blunt retractors beneath the extensor pollicis longus (EPL) in a dorsal and ulnar position and the APL radially and volarly.

images

TECH FIG 1  The base of the metacarpal is resected (A), and the trapezium is excised (B).

images The radial artery courses within this interval, and deep perforators to the dorsal capsule must be coagulated and divided so the artery can be retracted dorsally and ulnarly.

Capsular Incision and Trapezial Excision

images With gentle traction on the thumb, perform a longitudinal capsulotomy and obtain subperiosteal exposure of the trapezium and the base of the metacarpal (TECH FIG 1A). Extend the capsulotomy proximally so the scaphotrapezial joint is identified.

images Either retractors or tag sutures of 3-0 Vicryl can be used to retract the capsule.

images Before the trapezium is excised, use a microsagittal saw to remove a thin sliver of bone at the base of the metacarpal. This facilitates exposure of the distal extent of the trapezium and, with further traction on the thumb, provides a safer window for sectioning of the trapezium.

images Cut the trapezium into quadrants, beginning with the limb that parallels the expected course of the FCR tendon. Injury to the tendon during this portion of the procedure is unlikely if the saw is not brought completely through the trapezium.

images After making perpendicular cuts in the trapezium, place an osteotome and twist it to break apart its four quadrants. Removal of the trapezium in pieces with a rongeur is facilitated by sharp dissection of the remaining capsule, particularly volarly and around loose bodies. Avoid inordinate ripping and pulling with the rongeurs because damage to the underlying capsule can increase postoperative discomfort, particularly where it abuts the carpal tunnel.

images Remove osteophytic bone between the base of the thumb and index metacarpal so that pain does not accompany key pinch after the procedure. Identify the FCR tendon at the base of the arthroplasty space so it is not injured; remember that the trapezium may encircle the flexor carpi radialis tendon at its volar extent.

images At this portion of the procedure, I routinely have an assistant place traction on the index and long finger to allow inspection of the scaphotrapezoidal joint. If there is cartilage fraying or eburnation, a motorized burr or rongeur is used to remove 2 to 3 mm of proximal trapezoid so that, with axial compression applied to the index and long finger metacarpals, there is no contact between the remaining trapezoid and scaphoid (TECH FIG 1B). I do not interpose soft tissue or FCR tendon into the space. Take care not to remove bone from the capitate.

Creation of the Bony Channel Through the Metacarpal Base

images One centimeter distal to the squared-off base of the metacarpal, in the plane of the nail, create a bone tunnel with a motorized 3-mm burr that exits at the volar base of the metacarpal (TECH FIG 2).

images This position is selected rather than central exit point in the metacarpal base because passage of the FCR tendon volarly more closely simulates the original attachment of the beak ligament.

images Enlarge the bony channel with two curettes of increasing size, but do not make it large enough for the entire width of the leading edge of the FCR tendon. Rather, trim the full width of the FCR at its tip to facilitate passage with a Carroll tendon passer. In that light, the bony channel needs to be large enough only for the Carroll tendon passer to be used.

FCR Harvest

images Palpate the FCR tendon at wrist level during passive flexion and extension of the wrist, where it is clearly tendinous. More proximally in the forearm the tendon becomes less discrete. This generally correlates with the proximal one third to half of the forearm. At that location make a 1.5-cm transverse incision.

images Open the fascia, maximally flex the wrist, and identify the interval between the FCR tendon and muscle. Lift it into the wound via a curved clamp and divide it. Close this wound with 5-0 nylon sutures.

images Retract the capsular flaps to protect the overlying radial artery dorsally and ulnarly. Place a curved snap beneath the FCR tendon and pull it. This typically delivers the entire tendon into the arthroplasty space.

images Grasp the tendon at its tip and mobilize it to its insertion at the base of the index metacarpal without violating the small blood vessels that perfuse the tendon insertion itself.

images If adhesions between the FCR and the volar capsule are not released, the vector of the ligament reconstruction is based more proximally and will not closely simulate the original vector of the beak ligament. This, in my opinion, is a potential cause of early subsidence after ligament reconstruction.

images

TECH FIG 2  A tunnel is made at the base of the metacarpal.

images Taper the tendon for about 2 to 3 cm so the diameter of the tip of the tendon will easily fit through the bone tunnel via the Carroll tendon passer.

images Use a 4-0 Vicryl suture on a small needle to purchase the volar capsule for subsequent stabilization of the tendon interposition.

images If there are rents in the volar capsule, this same suture can be used to repair them, but I no longer am inordinately preoccupied with repairing small tears in the volar capsule because there is little risk of the tendon interposition extruding into the carpal canal or into the base of the metacarpal.

Stabilization of the Thumb Metacarpal (Optional) and FCR Tendon Tensioning

images Kirschner wire placement, when elected, is one of the more tedious parts of the procedure and must be performed skillfully so that the bony channel is not violated. If the Kirschner wire inadvertently purchases the FCR tendon within the bony channel in the metacarpal, it will impair the ability to pull it tight and properly tension the new ligament.

images Usually a 0.045- or 0.054-inch wire is used. It begins obliquely at the dorsoradial aspect of the metacarpal and purchases the ulnar carpus.

images I place the thumb in the “fisted” position as if engaged in key pinch. The TM is suspended at the level of the index metacarpal. Its base should be colinear with the scaphoid articular surface and the thumb tip should rest on the index finger, neither too extended nor flexed at its base.

images Ideally, this positions the thumb intrinsic muscles optimally on the Blix curve and ensures optimal restoration of pinch strength.

images Bend the wire external to the skin and cut it.

images A hand probe or the like is used to take the FCR tendon at the base of the metacarpal and pull it proximally (TECH FIG 3).

images When pinning has been performed, it should not prevent free excursion of the FCR through the bone channel. Pull the tendon tightly as it exits the dorsum of the TM and suture it to adjacent periosteum and soft tissue with 3-0 Vicryl suture.

images If pinning is not performed, at this point, ensure that you have suspended the metacarpal at the level of the index CMC joint.

images The extensor pollicis brevis (EPB) tendon is sutured more radially and divided distally. This completes the EPB tenodesis, rendering it an abductor of the metacarpal as opposed to a potential hyperextender of the MP joint.

images Place a second suture slightly more proximal to the tenodesis suture so that the ligament reconstruction is stabilized adequately, and perform tissue interposition.

Tissue Interposition (Optional)

images Although Burton's original technique continues to “resurface” the metacarpal base to minimize the chance that interposition material may extrude through the channel, this is unlikely. Studies have suggested that interposition is not a critical element of the procedure if suspension of the metacarpal has been effectively executed.3 Furthermore, proximal migration, short of causing scaphometacarpal impingement, appears not to affect the functional outcome.5

images In a higher-demand patient, however, residual length of the FCR is available for interposition as follows. The tendon is folded into the volar aspect of the arthroplasty space to ensure that it will sink into its depth. From that point distally, the tendon is folded back and forth about four times on a single Keith needle, like ribbon candy.

images A 4-0 Vicryl suture is used to stabilize each corner of the tendon anchovy, and then a second Keith needle is placed through it, parallel to the first. Apertures in each needle should be volar, the tip of each needle dorsal, and, with the previously placed volar capsular suture, each limb is threaded and the anchovy is slid down and delivered into the arthroplasty space. The two Vicryl limbs are tied, securing the tissue interposition (TECH FIG 4).

Capsular Repair and Wound Closure

images Tightly repair the capsule using 3-0 Vicryl sutures. If redundant capsule is present, a pants-over-vest closure can be performed.

images

TECH FIG 3  A. The flexor carpi radialis (FCR) is passed through bony tunnel. B. A hand probe indicates FCR suspensionplasty.

images

TECH FIG 4  The tendon anchovy held in place with Vicryl sutures.

images When closing the capsule, protect radial artery and neighboring radial sensory nerve branches to avoid damage.

images Close the incisions with 4-0 nylon and repeat identification of underlying radial sensory nerve branches to avoid inadvertent injury during skin closure. This may be a cause of dystrophic pain after surgery.

images Place a bulky thumb spica dressing, followed by volar and thumb spica splints.

images The hand is elevated for 3 or 4 days after surgery.

APL SUSPENSIONPLASTY 13

Incision and Deep Dissection

images Make a 6-cm curvilinear incision from two fingerbreadths proximal to the radial styloid process to 1 cm distal to the base of the metacarpal (TECH FIG 5A). Expose and retract the radial artery and branches of the radial sensory nerve.

images Release the first extensor compartment retinaculum as would be performed for De Quervain disease, leaving the volar attachment intact.

images At the myotendinous junction of the APL, release the ulnarmost slip of APL and free it to the level of its insertion at the metacarpal base (TECH FIG 5B).

images Expose the EPL and APL tendons—in between is the capsule of the TM joint.

images Perform a capsulotomy to expose the trapezium (TECH FIG 5C), which is resected after being cut partially into four fragments with a saw and osteotome.

images The base of the thumb metacarpal is not squared off; not resecting a small sliver from the metacarpal base may help to preserve the intermetacarpal ligament.

images The FCR tendon is visualized in the base of the arthroplasty space. With traction on the index and long fingers, inspect the scaphotrapezoidal joint; if it is arthritic, resect the proximal trapezoid.

Creation of the APL Suspensionplasty

images Poke the APL slip through the capsule to within the arthroplasty space. Using a right-angle clamp, pass it through a slit in the FCR tendon or around the FCR, while grabbing some local capsule as well (TECH FIG 6).

images Position the thumb so that it rests on the index finger in the fisted position—distracted so that the metacarpal base is at the level of the index CMC joint. A Kirschner wire is not placed.

images Pull the APL slip taut and place a 3-0 Vicryl suture between the APL slip, at the level of the metacarpal base, and the EPB (radially) and the tissue deep to the EPL (ulnarly).

Capsular Closure and Rehabilitation

images The capsule is closed and a thumb spica splint is placed for 14 days.

images

TECH FIG 5  Abductor pollicis longus suspensionplasty technique. A. Skin incision. B. Distally based slip of abductor pollicis longus. C. Trapezium excision (arrow identifies the trapezium).

images

TECH FIG 6  Abductor pollicis longus slip is passed through and around flexor carpi radialis (arrow).

images

POSTOPERATIVE CARE

images First month

images At 2 weeks, the patient returns for suture removal, wound inspection, and placement of a fiberglass thumb spica cast that allows full motion of the thumb interphalangeal joint, unless MCP joint fusion has been performed.

images At 4 weeks, the patient returns again, the Kirschner wire is pulled (if one has been placed), and a forearm-based thumb spica Orthoplast splint is fashioned by the hand therapist.

images Gentle wrist and thumb MCP joint range-of-motion exercises are initiated, as well as thenar isometric exercises. The latter are performed with the thumb in the splint.

images Month 2

images At 6 weeks, if the patient is comfortable, gentle pinch and grip strengthening exercises are initiated.

images By 8 weeks, flexion-adduction and opposition exercises are begun.

images Month 3

images By this time, the patient is usually doing well enough that the splint can be discarded.

images Grip and pinch exercises are typically continued by the patient via a home program.

images No rigorous attempt is made for the thumb to reach the ring and small finger bases because there is no functional relevance to these activities and they risk stretching the ligament. In addition, passive range of motion is not a part of the postoperative regimen.

images During months 3 to 6, the patient is encouraged to use the hand and to push the exercises vigorously. Typically, patients return to normal activities, including golf and tennis.

OUTCOMES

LRTI Arthroplasty

images Improvements in grip strength typically exceed improvements in key pinch strength. In 1995, Tomaino et al12 noted that key pinch strength took at least 6 years to equal preoperative measurements.

images At an average follow-up of 9 years (range 8 to 11), these authors12 reported on 24 thumbs in 22 patients and found that average grip strength increased 93%, average key pinch strength increased 34%, and tip pinch strength increased 65% compared with preoperative values.

images In contrast to many other studies, stress radiographs showed an average subluxation of the metacarpal base of only 11% and subsidence of only 13%. This compares favorably with the radiographic outcomes after the hematoma distraction arthroplasty.4,6

images

FIG 4  Postoperative lateral radiograph shows arthroplasty space 1 year after surgery.

images Even in series in which proximal migration of the metacarpal base averaged greater than 20%, there has been no significant correlation between maintenance of arthroplasty space height and objective or subjective clinical outcome (FIG 4).5

APL Suspensionplasty

images My evaluation of outcomes after the APL suspensionplasty found a satisfaction rate and functional return equivalent to the LRTI procedure.13

images Evaluation of 23 thumbs in 22 patients at a minimum of 1 year after surgery showed that grip and key pinch strengths were 82% and 77%, respectively, compared to the opposite side. Proximal migration of the metacarpal averaged 50% of the preoperative trapezial height. Experience and the literature show that modest proximal migration does not correlate with outcome.5

images In summary, APL suspensionplasty is a simple yet effective treatment alternative for basal joint arthritis. The suspensionplasty technique uses our current understanding of the forces involved during pinch and grip,2 as well as the role of normal ligamentous anatomy.

COMPLICATIONS

images One cause of unsatisfactory outcome after basal joint arthroplasty is residual pain because of failure to address scaphotrapezial or scaphotrapezoidal disease.14 Routine complete excision of the trapezium certainly precludes the scaphotrapezial joint pain. Routine intraoperative observation and treatment of the scaphotrapezoidal disease by partial excision of the proximal trapezoid prevents scaphotrapezoidal joint pain.14

images Unaddressed instability of the MCP joint can also impair functional outcome after ligament reconstruction. During lateral pinch, MCP joint hyperextension causes reciprocal deformity more proximally, imposing metacarpal adduction and stressing the reconstructed ligament. Accordingly, early identification of hyperextension in excess of 30 degrees during key pinch should prompt stabilization to protect the integrity of the basal joint ligament reconstruction. Even with a sound ligament reconstruction and appropriate stabilization of the MCP joint, it is theoretically possible to develop recurrent laxity at the basal joint due to stretching of the ligament reconstruction.

REFERENCES

1.     Bettinger P, Lindschied, Berger R, et al. An anatomic study of the stabilizing ligaments of the trapezium and trapeziometacarpal joint. J Hand Surg Am 1999;24A:786–798.

2.     Cooney WP, Chao EYS. Biomechanical analysis of static forces in the thumb during hand function. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1977;59A:27–36.

3.     Gerwin M, Griffith A, Weiland AJ, et al. Ligament reconstruction basal joint arthroplasty without tendon interposition. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1997;342:42–45.

4.     Gray KV, Meals RA. Hematoma and distraction arthroplasty for thumb basal joint osteoarthritis: minimum 6.5-year follow-up evaluation. J Hand Surg Am 2007;32A:23–29.

5.     Kriegs-Au G, Petje G, Fojtl E, et al. Ligament reconstruction with or without tendon interposition to treat primary thumb carpometacarpal osteoarthritis. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2004;86A:209–218.

6.     Kuhns CA, Emerson ET, Meals RA. Hematoma and distraction arthroplasty for thumb basal joint osteoarthritis: a prospective, single-surgeon study including outcomes measures. J Hand Surg Am 2003;28A:381–389.

7.     Nylen S, Juhlin LJ, Lugnegard H. Weilby tendon interposition arthroplasty for osteoarthritis of the trapezial joints. J Hand Surg Br 1987; 12B:68–72.

8.     Pellegrini VD. Pathomechanics of the thumb trapeziometacarpal joint. Hand Clin 2001;17:175–184.

9.     Pellegrini VD, Olcott CW, Hollenberg G. Contact patterns in the trapeziometacarpal joint: the role of the palmar beak ligament. J Hand Surg Am 1993;18A:238–244.

10. Sigfusson R, Lundborg G. Abductor pollicis longus tendon arthroplasty for treatment of arthrosis in the first carpometacarpal joint. Scand J Plast Reconst Hand Surg 1991;25:73–77.

11. Tomaino MM. Ligament reconstruction tendon interposition arthroplasty for basal joint arthritis. Hand Clinics 2001;17:207–221.

12. Tomaino MM, Pellegrini VD, Burton RI. Arthroplasty of the basal joint of the thumb: long-term follow up after ligament reconstruction with tendon interposition. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1995;77A:346–355.

13. Tomaino MM. Suspensionplasty for basal joint arthritis: why and how. Hand Clin 2006;22:171–175.

14. Tomaino MM, Vogt M, Weiser R. Scaphotrapezoid arthritis: prevalence in thumbs undergoing trapezium excision arthroplasty and efficacy of proximal trapezoid excision. J Hand Surg Am 1999; 24A:1220–1224.

15. Weilby A. Tendon interposition arthroplasty of the first carpometacarpal joint. J Hand Surg Br 1988;13B:421–425.



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